eight kinds of sufferings ［八種の大難］ ( hasshu-no-dainan): The sufferings that one must undergo as retribution for countless past offenses. They are described in the Mahāparinirvāna Sutra, Fa-hsien’s Chinese version of the Nirvana Sutra. They are (1) to be despised, (2) to be cursed with an ugly appearance, (3) to be poorly clad, (4) to be poorly fed, (5) to seek wealth in vain, (6) to be born to an impoverished and lowly family, (7) to be born to a family with erroneous views, and (8) to be persecuted by one’s sovereign.